Energy revolution: How green hydrogen production is transforming our sustainable future???
Introduction
Definition of Green Hydrogen
What is green hydrogen? Green hydrogen is produced by the electrolysis of water using renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, or hydroelectric power. It is considered a clean energy because its production does not emit greenhouse gases (Demirci & Miele, 2013).
Distinction between grey, blue and green hydrogen:
- Grey hydrogen: Produced from natural gas or coal, emitting CO₂ in the process (Elshafei & Mansour, 2023).
- Blue hydrogen: Produced in the same way as grey hydrogen, but with capture and storage of the emitted CO₂ (Yu, Wang, & Vredenburg, 2021).
- Green hydrogen: Produced by electrolysis of water using electricity from renewable sources, without CO₂ emissions (Velazquez Abad & Dodds, 2020).
Importance of green hydrogen
Potential role in the energy transition green hydrogen plays a crucial role in the transition to sustainable energy by serving as a means of storing renewable energy and contributing to the stability of energy systems (Mahdy, 2022).
Environmental and Economic Benefits Green hydrogen is a key solution to reduce carbon emissions and support the transition to a zero-emission economy. Its adoption can reduce reliance on fossil fuels and promote economic development through the creation of renewable energy jobs (Majewski, Salehi, & Xing, 2023).
Objectives of the article
- Explain the methods of green hydrogen production: The article aims to detail the different methods of green hydrogen production, highlighting electrochemical, biological and thermal processes in line with the principles of green chemistry (Çelik & Yildiz, 2017).
- Identify challenges and opportunities: It is also important to identify the technical and economic challenges as well as potential opportunities for the expansion of green hydrogen, including the necessary investments and the regulations in place (Guarieiro et al., 2022).
- Explore current and future applications: Finally, the article will explore the current applications of green hydrogen in the transportation, power generation and residential heating sectors, as well as its future prospects for industrial decarbonization and the production of clean fuels (Nicolin & Nicolin, 2023).
Green hydrogen production methods
Water electrolysis
Principle of Electrolysis
Water electrolysis is an electrochemical process that separates water (H₂O) into hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂) using an electric current. This process takes place in an electrolyzer, which consists of two electrodes immersed in an electrolyte. When current passes through the electrolyte, the water molecules dissociate, producing hydrogen at the cathode and oxygen at the anode (Schalenbach et al., 2016).
Types of electrolyzers: alkaline, PEM, SOEC
Alkaline electrolyzers (AWE) Alkaline electrolyzers use a liquid electrolyte, usually a solution of KOH (potassium hydroxide) or NaOH (sodium hydroxide). They are well established and have been used for decades, offering good durability and relatively low cost. However, they require thick separators, which can reduce energy efficiency (Marini et al., 2012).
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzers PEM electrolyzers use a polymer membrane as a solid electrolyte, which allows for a faster reaction and higher current density. They are more compact and efficient than alkaline electrolyzers, but their cost is higher due to the use of precious metal catalysts such as platinum and iridium (Grigoriev et al., 2020).
Solid Oxide Electrolyzers (SOECs) SOECs operate at high temperatures (700–1000°C) and use ceramic as the electrolyte. They offer very high efficiency due to the reduced energy requirements for splitting water at high temperatures. However, technological challenges and high costs currently limit their large-scale adoption (Pan et al., 2017).
Renewable energy sources
Use of solar energy
Solar energy for water electrolysis Solar energy, captured via photovoltaic (PV) panels, can be used to power electrolysers to produce hydrogen. This method is particularly advantageous because it uses a renewable and abundant energy source. The integration of solar panels with proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysers allows for efficient and stable hydrogen production. However, variations in sunlight can affect the stability of hydrogen production, requiring energy storage solutions to overcome these fluctuations (Brauns & Turek, 2020).
b)Use of wind energy
Wind energy for water electrolysis Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy of wind into electricity, which can then be used for water electrolysis. As with solar energy, wind energy is intermittent and dependent on weather conditions. Combining wind turbines with electrolysers, including alkaline and PEM electrolysers, allows for the sustainable production of hydrogen. Challenges include managing power fluctuations and the need for storage systems to ensure continuous hydrogen production (Chi & Yu, 2018).
Use of hydropower
Hydropower for water electrolysis Hydropower, from dams and streams, is a stable and predictable renewable energy source. It can be used to power electrolysers, enabling continuous and reliable hydrogen production. Hydropower has the advantage of providing constant power, which reduces the need for energy storage systems compared to solar and wind energy sources. The stability of this energy source makes it an attractive option for large-scale hydrogen production (Zhang & Zeng, 2015).
Comparison with other production methods
Advantages and disadvantages of electrolysis compared to methane reforming and coal gasification
Advantages of electrolysis
- Renewable energy: Electrolysis allows the production of hydrogen from renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydroelectricity, making it more environmentally friendly by reducing greenhouse gas emissions (Brauns & Turek, 2020).
- Hydrogen purity: It produces high-purity hydrogen that can be used directly in fuel cells (Chi & Yu, 2018).
Disadvantages of electrolysis
- High costs: The costs of producing hydrogen by electrolysis are still high due to the cost of renewable electricity and the equipment required (Acar & Dincer, 2014).
- Energy efficiency: Electrolysis has energy losses, making it less efficient compared to other methods (Keipi, Tolvanen, & Konttinen, 2018).
Advantages of methane reforming
- Lower costs: Methane reforming is currently one of the most economical methods to produce hydrogen, thanks to the abundance and low cost of natural gas (Cetinkaya, Dincer, & Naterer, 2012).
- Mature technology: This method is well established and widely used, with existing infrastructure for production and distribution (Rosen, 1996).
Disadvantages of methane reforming
- CO₂ emissions: The process emits a significant amount of CO₂, contributing to global warming (Steinberg & Cheng, 1989).
- Fossil fuel dependency: It relies on a non-renewable resource, which limits its long-term sustainability (Ju, Badwal, & Giddey, 2018).
Advantages of coal gasification
- Coal abundance: Coal is an abundant and widely available resource, which can make it a reliable source of hydrogen production (Rand & Dell, 2009).
- Large-scale production: Coal gasification can produce large quantities of hydrogen, which is advantageous for industrial applications (Steinberg & Cheng, 1989).
Disadvantages of coal gasification
- High CO₂ emissions: This process also produces a large amount of CO₂, requiring carbon capture and storage measures to reduce its environmental impact (Cetinkaya, Dincer, & Naterer, 2012).
- Purification costs: Purifying the hydrogen produced requires additional steps and additional costs (Halmann & Steinfeld, 2009).
Challenges and opportunities
Technical and economic challenges
High cost of electrolysis and renewable energy
Cost of Electrolysis Electrolysis, although promising for the production of green hydrogen, remains expensive due to the high costs associated with electrolyzers and renewable electricity required to power the process. The costs of hydrogen produced by electrolysis are currently higher than those of traditional methods such as methane reforming. For example, the cost of producing hydrogen by electrolysis using solar energy can be as high as $22/kg, while technological improvements could reduce this cost to around $6-8/kg by 2030 (Yadav & Banerjee, 2018).
Cost of Renewable Energy Using renewable energy for electrolysis adds another layer of cost. For example, hydrogen production by wind-powered electrolysis ranges from $3.37 to $9.00/kg H₂, depending on existing infrastructure and capital costs for new installations (Olateju, Kumar, & Secanell, 2016). High upfront costs for solar PV and wind turbines remain a significant barrier.
Energy efficiency and storage
Energy efficiency The energy efficiency of electrolysis is a major challenge. Electrolysers have varying efficiencies, with alkaline electrolysers and proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysers showing overall efficiencies in the range of 60–70%. However, integrating electrolysis with intermittent renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, can reduce overall efficiency due to fluctuations in energy supply (Grube et al., 2018).
Hydrogen storage Hydrogen storage is crucial to overcome the intermittencies of renewable energy. Energy storage systems, such as batteries and hydrogen tanks, allow hydrogen produced during peaks in renewable energy production to be stored and used when energy demand is high. However, these systems add additional costs and technical challenges. For example, storing hydrogen as a compressed gas or liquid requires specialized infrastructure and high maintenance and security costs (Dash, Chakraborty, & Elangovan, 2023).
Opportunities and innovations
Cost reduction through technological advances
Technological advances in hydrogen production and renewable energy can significantly reduce the production costs of green hydrogen. For example, improving the efficiency of electrolyzers and reducing the costs of components such as proton exchange membranes (PEMs) and catalysts can reduce the overall costs of electrolysis (Dincer & Acar, 2017). In addition, the development of new methods for hydrogen production, such as high-temperature electrolysis using solid oxide electrolytic cells (SOECs), could offer higher energy efficiencies and lower production costs (Seitz et al., 2017).
Development of transportation and storage infrastructure
Developing efficient infrastructure for hydrogen transportation and storage is essential for its large-scale implementation. Using existing pipelines for hydrogen transportation can reduce logistics costs. In addition, innovations in hydrogen storage, such as seasonal underground tanks, can improve the economic and energy efficiency of hydrogen storage (Haghi, Raahemifar, & Fowler, 2018). Initiatives for the development of offshore hydrogen, combined with wind farms, also show potential for reducing costs and increasing production (Dzhusupova & Vis, 2023).
Supportive policies and economic incentives
Governmental support policies and economic incentives play a crucial role in promoting the production and use of green hydrogen. For example, subsidies and tax credits for clean hydrogen production can reduce costs for producers and stimulate investment in hydrogen technologies (Granholm, 2023). In addition, integrated and coherent policies that combine short- and long-term objectives can encourage the adoption of hydrogen in various sectors, such as transport and industry (Zhao & Melaina, 2006). International initiatives and partnerships, such as those of the International Energy Agency (IEA) and the International Partnership for Hydrogen Economy (IPHE), are also essential to harmonize efforts and accelerate the global adoption of hydrogen (Dixon, 2007).
Applications of green hydrogen
Energy Sector
Use in power generation
Green hydrogen can be used to produce electricity in a clean and efficient manner. By using fuel cells, hydrogen is converted into electricity without CO₂ emissions, making it an ideal solution to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the energy sector. Hydrogen fuel cells can be used in power plants to provide a stable and reliable power supply. For example, electrolysis-based hydrogen production systems can be coupled with renewable energy sources such as solar and wind to produce hydrogen when there is excess energy, which can then be used to generate electricity during periods of high demand (Widera, 2019).
Renewable energy storage
One of the main applications of green hydrogen is the storage of renewable energy. Wind and solar energy are intermittent and can produce electricity irregularly. Hydrogen offers a long-term storage solution, allowing excess energy produced during periods of high production to be stored and reused when renewable energy production is low. For example, stand-alone hydrogen-based systems have been developed to store excess energy as hydrogen, which can then be converted into electricity via fuel cells during periods of low production (Agbossou et al., 2004). This type of storage is crucial for balancing electricity grids and integrating more renewable energy into the energy system (Dincer, 2012).
Industry
Decabornization of industrial processes
The use of green hydrogen in industrial processes offers a significant opportunity to reduce CO₂ emissions. For example, hydrogen can replace coal in direct reduction processes for iron and steel production, thereby reducing carbon emissions associated with steel production (Ostadi et al., 2020). In addition, the chemical industry can use green hydrogen for the production of products such as ammonia and methanol, thus enabling cleaner chemical production (Doucet et al., 2023).
Heat and power generation for heavy industries
Green hydrogen can also be used to provide heat and power to heavy industries, which are among the most difficult to decarbonize. For example, in the production of cement and glass, hydrogen can replace traditional fossil fuels to provide the heat needed for these high-temperature processes (Foslie et al., 2023). In addition, hydrogen can be used in gas turbines to generate electricity and heat for industrial applications, improving energy efficiency and reducing carbon emissions (Pitcher et al., 2021).
Transportation
Hydrogen vehicles (cars, trucks, buses)
Green hydrogen is increasingly being considered to power vehicles, including cars, trucks, and buses. Hydrogen fuel cells convert hydrogen into electricity, powering the vehicles’ electric motors with zero emissions. This technology offers several advantages over battery electric vehicles (BEVs), including faster charging times and greater range. Hydrogen buses are particularly attractive for urban fleets, where refueling infrastructure can be centralized (Kendall & Pollet, 2012). Hydrogen trucks, due to their ability to carry heavy loads over long distances, represent a viable option for freight transport, reducing CO₂ emissions compared to diesel trucks (Perham, 2012).
Use in aviation and shipping
Aviation Aviation is one of the most challenging sectors to decarbonise due to high energy density requirements. Hydrogen, used in fuel cells or directly in combustion engines, is being considered as a potential solution to reduce aviation emissions. Small aircraft and drones are already using hydrogen fuel cells for experimental flights. In the longer term, commercial aircraft could adopt hydrogen for short-haul flights, although this would require significant adaptations to airport infrastructure and the aircraft themselves (Gray et al., 2021).
Shipping Shipping represents another promising application for green hydrogen. Hydrogen-powered ships can significantly reduce CO₂ emissions and air pollutants compared to traditional marine fuels. Hydrogen can be used in fuel cells or internal combustion engines modified to run on hydrogen. Challenges include the relatively low energy density of hydrogen and the infrastructure requirements for storage and refueling of ships. However, studies show that the use of hydrogen in ships could reduce overall emissions significantly, contributing to cleaner oceans and a reduction in the maritime sector’s carbon footprint (Van Hoecke et al., 2021).
Case studies and pilot projects
Ongoing projects
Examples of green hydrogen production projects worldwide
1. Offshore Green Hydrogen Production in Europe A major project is underway in Europe, aiming to harness offshore wind energy to produce green hydrogen. This project plans to develop offshore hydrogen production capacities in the North Sea, with a target of 20 GW of capacity by 2030. This project could transform the North Sea into a green powerhouse for Europe, reducing the need for costly infrastructure on land (Dzhusupova & Vis, 2023).
2. Hydrogen Valley in Central Italy In Central Italy, a project aims to convert an abandoned industrial area into a green hydrogen production site. This project involves a detailed analysis of the territorial and industrial context to adequately size the hydrogen production plant. Although the initial investment is significant, the long-term benefits are promising, especially with significant public subsidies (Ficco et al., 2022).
3. Green Hydrogen in Chile Chile is actively exploring the production of green hydrogen by exploiting its immense potential in solar and wind energy. An experimental project has been launched in the Atacama Desert to evaluate the efficiency of hydrogen production and consumption at different altitudes. Chile could become a world leader in the production and export of green hydrogen thanks to its renewable resources and its favorable policy framework (Chávez-Ángel et al., 2023).
Impact and preliminary results
1. Cost reduction The cost of electrolysers, especially for alkaline and PEM technologies, is expected to decline due to economies of scale and technological advances. This could make green hydrogen more competitive in the global market. Forecasts indicate that the cost of green hydrogen could fall below $5/kg by 2030 for solar and wind sources (Zun & McLellan, 2023).
2. Infrastructure development Projects such as those in Europe and Chile demonstrate a successful integration of renewable energy and green hydrogen production infrastructure. The development of such infrastructure is crucial to support the expansion of green hydrogen and to overcome logistical and economic challenges (Dzhusupova & Vis, 2023), (Chávez-Ángel et al., 2023).
3. Environmental impact Green hydrogen production projects contribute significantly to CO₂ emissions reduction, aligning decarbonization goals with international climate commitments. Integrating green hydrogen into different industrial and energy sectors can also improve energy security and diversify energy sources (Scita et al., 2020).
Case studies
a) Detailed analysis of some flagship projects
1. Offshore Green Hydrogen Production in Europe The offshore green hydrogen project in Europe, mainly in the North Sea, is one of the most ambitious and promising projects. This project aims to produce hydrogen using offshore wind farms to power electrolysers installed on maritime platforms. The goal is to produce 20 GW of green hydrogen by 2030. This initiative not only reduces electricity transmission costs but also directly uses the hydrogen produced to power European energy networks (Dzhusupova & Vis, 2023).
2. Hydrogen Valley in Central Italy In central Italy, an innovative project is transforming a former industrial area into a green hydrogen production site. The project involves using renewable energy to power electrolysers and produce hydrogen for various industrial and transport applications. Preliminary results show a significant reduction in CO₂ emissions and operating costs thanks to significant subsidies and tax incentives (Ficco et al., 2022).
3. Green Hydrogen in Chile is actively exploring green hydrogen production thanks to its solar and wind energy potential. An experimental project in the Atacama Desert uses solar and wind installations to produce hydrogen at different altitudes. Preliminary results show that Chile could become a world leader in the production and export of green hydrogen, thanks to abundant renewable resources and favorable policies (Chávez-Ángel et al., 2023).
Lessons learned and good practices
1. Importance of location and resources Successful projects show that location plays a crucial role in green hydrogen production. Access to abundant renewable resources, such as solar and wind, is essential to maximize efficiency and minimize costs. For example, the North Sea project takes advantage of abundant wind resources, while the Chilean project uses the intense sunlight of the Atacama Desert (Dzhusupova & Vis, 2023), (Chávez-Ángel et al., 2023).
Integration of subsidies and tax incentives The integration of subsidies and tax incentives is a key good practice to reduce initial costs and attract investment. Government support policies can play a decisive role in the success of green hydrogen projects. The project in Central Italy shows how financial incentives can make projects more viable and attract private investment (Ficco et al., 2022).
3. International collaboration and partnerships Green hydrogen projects often benefit from international collaborations and partnerships. These collaborations can facilitate the sharing of technologies, expertise, and best practices. For example, the European offshore project involves several countries and companies, thus fostering a collaborative approach to overcome technical and economic challenges (Dzhusupova & Vis, 2023).
Conclusion
Future Perspectives
Future Innovations and Ongoing Research Green hydrogen is at the heart of much research and innovation aimed at improving the efficiency of its production and use. For example, significant advances are underway in electrolysis technologies, with efforts to reduce costs and increase the efficiency of electrolysers. Research is also being conducted to develop more efficient and less costly hydrogen storage systems, which are essential for integrating green hydrogen into energy grids and industrial applications (Kovač et al., 2021).
Role of Green Hydrogen in the Global Energy Transition Green hydrogen is considered a key element of the global energy transition. As a clean energy carrier, it can contribute to decarbonizing various sectors, including industry, transportation, and power generation. It offers a flexible solution for renewable energy storage and can be used to balance electricity grids, which is crucial for a transition to a low-carbon economy (Muradov & Veziroglu, 2008).
Call to action
Need for collaborations between governments, businesses and researchers To fully realize the potential of green hydrogen, close collaboration between governments, businesses and research institutions is essential. Public-private partnerships can accelerate the development of hydrogen technologies, while international collaborations can facilitate the sharing of knowledge and resources (Marouani et al., 2023).
Importance of investment and policy support to accelerate the development of green hydrogen Investments in hydrogen production and distribution infrastructure are crucial. Governments should provide financial incentives and subsidies to support green hydrogen projects and encourage private investment. In addition, coherent policies and favorable regulations are needed to create an enabling environment for the development and adoption of green hydrogen (Dixit et al., 2023).
References
- Demirci, U. B., & Miele, P. (2013). Overview of the relative greenness of the main hydrogen production processes. Journal of Cleaner Production, 52, 1-10.
- Elshafei, A. M., & Mansour, R. (2023). Green Hydrogen as a Potential Solution for Reducing Carbon Emissions: A Review. Journal of Energy Research and Reviews.
- Yu, M., Wang, K., & Vredenburg, H. (2021). Insights into low-carbon hydrogen production methods: Green, blue and aqua hydrogen. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy.
- Velazquez Abad, A., & Dodds, P. (2020). Green hydrogen characterization initiatives: Definitions, standards, guarantees of origin, and challenges. Energy Policy.
- Mahdy, M.A. (2022). Green hydrogen and its role in renewable energy and sustainable development. International Journal of Advances Engineering and Civil Research.
- Majewski, P., Salehi, F., & Xing, K. (2023). Green hydrogen. AIMS Energy.
- Çelik, D., & Yildiz, M. (2017). Investigation of hydrogen production methods in accordance with green chemistry principles. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 42, 23395-23401.
- Guarieiro, L., dos Anjos, J. D., da Silva, L., Santos, A., Calixto, E., Pessoa, F., de Almeida, J., Filho, M. A., Marinho, F., da Rocha, G.D., & de Andrade, J.D. (2022). Technological Perspectives and Economic Aspects of Green Hydrogen in the Energetic Transition: Challenges for Chemistry. Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society.
- Nicolin, B.A., & Nicolin, I. (2023). Green hydrogen as an environmentally-friendly power source. INCAS BULLETIN.
- Schalenbach, M., Tjarks, G., Carmo, M., Lueke, W., Mueller, M., & Stolten, D. (2016). Acidic or Alkaline? Towards a New Perspective on the Efficiency of Water Electrolysis. Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 163. • Marini, S., Salvi, P., Nelli, P., Pesenti, R., Villa, M., Berrettoni, M., Zangari, G., & Kiros, Y. ( 2012). Advanced alkaline water electrolysis. Electrochimica Acta, 82, 384-391.
- Grigoriev, S., Bessarabov, D., Fateev, V., & Millet, P. (2020). Current status, research trends, and challenges in water electrolysis science and technology. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 45, 26036-26058.
- Pan, Z., Liu, Q., Zhang, L., Zhou, J., Zhang, C. Z., & Chan, S. (2017). Experimental and thermodynamic study on the performance of water electrolysis by solid oxide electrolyzer cells with Nb-doped Co-based perovskite anode Applied Energy, 191, 559-567.
- Brauns, J., & Turek, T. (2020). Alkaline Water Electrolysis Powered by Renewable Energy: A Review. Processes.
- Chi, J., & Yu, H. (2018). Water electrolysis based on renewable energy for hydrogen production. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 39, 390-394.
- Zhang, D., & Zeng, K. (2015). Distributed Energy Systems Based on Water Electrolysis Driven by Renewable Electricity.
- Cetinkaya, E., Dincer, I., & Naterer, G. (2012). Life cycle assessment of various hydrogen production methods. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 37, 2071-2080.
- Acar, C., & Dincer, I. (2014). Comparative assessment of hydrogen production methods from renewable and non-renewable sources. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 39, 1-12.
- Keipi, T., Tolvanen, H., & Konttinen, J. (2018). Economic analysis of hydrogen production by methane thermal decomposition: Comparison to competing technologies. Energy Conversion and Management, 159, 264-273.
- Steinberg, M., & Cheng, H. C. (1989). Modern and prospective technologies for hydrogen production from fossil fuels. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 14, 797-820.
- Ju, H., Badwal, S., & Giddey, S. (2018). A comprehensive review of carbon and hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis for hydrogen production. Applied Energy.
- Halmann, M., & Steinfeld, A. (2009). [Hydrogen production and CO2 fixation by flue-gas treatment using methane tri-reforming or coke/coal gasification combined with lime carbonation](https://consensus.app/papers/hydrogen-production-fixation-fluegas-treatment-using-halmann /5de4ba706d6b542e96 • Dash, S. K., Chakraborty, S., & Elangovan, D. (2023). Hombach, L. E., Raths, S., Robinius, M., ... & Stolten, D. (2018).
- Olateju, B., Kumar, A., & Secanell, M. (2016). A techno-economic assessment of large scale wind-hydrogen production with energy storage in Western Canada. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 41, 8755-8776.
- Yadav, D., & Banerjee, R. (2018). Economic assessment of hydrogen production from solar driven high-temperature steam electrolysis process. Journal of Cleaner Production, 183, 1131-1155.
- Dincer, I., & Acar, C. (2017). Innovation in hydrogen production. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 42, 14843-14864.
- Seitz, M., Storch, H. V., Nechache, A., & Bauer, D. (2017). Techno economic design of a solid oxide electrolysis system with solar thermal steam supply and thermal energy storage for the generation of renewable hydrogen. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 42, 26192-26202.
- Haghi, E., Raahemifar, K., & Fowler, M. (2018). Investigating the effect of renewable energy incentives and hydrogen storage on advantages of stakeholders in a microgrid. Energy Policy, 113, 206-222.
- Dzhusupova, R., & Vis, R. (2023). Exploring the potential of offshore green hydrogen production: A concept study for a large-scale installation. Day 4 Thu, October 05, 2023. • Granholm, J. M. (2023). US releases National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap. MRS Bulletin, 48, 707-708.
- Zhao, J., & Melaina, M. (2006). Transition to hydrogen-based transportation in China: Lessons learned from alternative fuel vehicle programs in the United States and China. Energy Policy, 34, 1299-1309.
- Dixon, R.K. (2007). Advancing Towards a Hydrogen Energy Economy: Status, Opportunities and Barriers. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 12, 325-341.
- Widera, B. (2019). Renewable hydrogen as an energy storage solution. E3S Web of Conferences.
- Agbossou, K., Kolhe, M., Hamelin, J., & Bose, T. (2004). Performance of a stand-alone renewable energy system based on energy storage as hydrogen. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion.
- Dincer, I. (2012). Green methods for hydrogen production. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy.
- Ostadi, M., Paso, K., Rodríguez-Fabià, S., Øi, L., Manenti, F., & Hillestad, M. (2020). Process Integration of Green Hydrogen: Decarbonization of Chemical Industries. Energies.
- Doucet, F., Jürgens, L., Barkow, H., Schütte, C., Neubauer, N., von Düsterlho, E., & Schäfers, H. (2023). Decarbonization of the Industry – Demand and Cost Comparison of Green Hydrogen in Germany. 2023 19th International Conference on the European Energy Market (EEM).
- Foslie, S.S., Straus, J., & Korpås, M. (2023). Green or blue? Enabling industrial decarbonization and demand response with hydrogen for high temperature process heating. 2023 19th International Conference on the European Energy Market (EEM).
- Pitcher, M., van 't Hoff, M., & Basmajian, N. (2021). Innovative Solutions to Decarbonize Hydrogen Production. Day 4 Thu, November 18, 2021. • Kendall, K., & Pollet, B. (2012). Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in Transport. Journal of Power Sources.
- Perham, S. (2012). Hydrogen giving reduced carbon emissions from vehicles. International Journal of Low-carbon Technologies.
- Gray, N., McDonagh, S., O'Shea, R., Smyth, B., & Murphy, J. (2021). Decarbonising ships, planes and trucks: An analysis of suitable low-carbon fuels for the maritime, aviation and haulage sectors. Advances in Applied Energy.
- Van Hoecke, L., Laffineur, L., Campe, R., Perreault, P., Verbruggen, S., & Lenaerts, S. (2021). Challenges in the use of hydrogen for maritime applications. Energy and Environmental Science.
- Dzhusupova, R., & Vis, R. (2023). Exploring the Potential of Offshore Green Hydrogen Production. Day 4 Thu, October 05, 2023. • Ficco, G., Arpino, F., Dell’Isola, M., Grimaldi, M., & Lisi, S. (2022). Development of a Hydrogen Valley for Exploitation of Green Hydrogen in Central Italy. Energies.
- Chávez-Ángel, E., Castro-Alvarez, A., Sapunar, N., Henríquez, F., Saavedra, J., Rodríguez, S., Cornejo, I., & Maxwell, L. (2023). Exploring the Potential of Green Hydrogen Production and Application in the Antofagasta Region of Chile. Energies.
- Zun, M. T., & McLellan, B. C. (2023). Cost Projection of Global Green Hydrogen Production Scenarios. Hydrogen.
- Scita, R., Raimondi, P., & Noussan, M. (2020). Green Hydrogen: The Holy Grail of Decarbonization?. SSRN Electronic Journal.
- Dzhusupova, R., & Vis, R. (2023). Exploring the Potential of Offshore Green Hydrogen Production. Day 4 Thu, October 05, 2023. • Ficco, G., Arpino, F., Dell’Isola, M., Grimaldi, M., & Lisi, S. (2022). Development of a Hydrogen Valley for Exploitation of Green Hydrogen in Central Italy. Energies.
- Chávez-Ángel, E., Castro-Alvarez, A., Sapunar, N., Henríquez, F., Saavedra, J., Rodríguez, S., Cornejo, I., & Maxwell, L. (2023). Exploring the Potential of Green Hydrogen Production and Application in the Antofagasta Region of Chile. Energies.
- Kovač, A., Paranos, M., & Marciuš, D. (2021). Hydrogen in energy transition: A review. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy.
- Muradov, N., & Veziroglu, T. (2008). “Green” path from fossil-based to hydrogen economy: An overview of carbon-neutral technologies. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy.
- Marouani, I., Guesmi, T., Alshammari, B., Alqunun, K., Alzamil, A., Alturki, M., & Hadj Abdallah, H. (2023). Integration of Renewable-Energy-Based Green Hydrogen into the Energy Future. Processes.
- Dixit, A. C., Ashok, B. C., Mohan Krishna, S. A., & H. B. (2023). Green Hydrogen for Karnataka: Regional Solutions for a Clean Energy Future. E3S Web of Conferences.