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Greenhouse effect: Technological innovations and sustainable solutions

Definition of the greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect is a natural process by which certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap heat. These gases, called greenhouse gases (GHGs), absorb infrared radiation emitted by the Earth's surface and re-emit it in all directions, including toward the surface. This causes the temperature at the Earth's surface to increase, creating an environment conducive to life (IPCC, 2014).

The greenhouse effect is essential to maintain an average temperature on Earth that supports life. Without the natural greenhouse effect, the average temperature of the Earth's surface would be about -18°C, instead of the current 15°C. The most important greenhouse gases in this process are water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and ozone (O3). These gases play a crucial role in regulating the Earth's climate (NASA, 2019).

History and discovery

The greenhouse effect was first discovered in the early 19th century. In 1824, French scientist Joseph Fourier hypothesized that the Earth's atmosphere could trap heat. Later, in 1859, John Tyndall, a British physicist, experimentally demonstrated that certain gases, including carbon dioxide and water vapor, could absorb heat (Fourier, 1824), (Tyndall, 1859).

In the 20th century, scientific understanding of the greenhouse effect advanced significantly. In 1896, Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius was the first to quantify the effect of CO2 on global warming. His calculations showed that doubling the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere could cause a significant increase in the Earth's surface temperature (Arrhenius, 1896). Since then, numerous studies have confirmed and refined these conclusions, demonstrating the crucial role of human activities in increasing GHG concentrations and current global warming (IPCC, 2014).

This article aims to explain in detail the mechanism of the greenhouse effect, describing how greenhouse gases interact with infrared radiation and how this process influences the Earth's temperature.

The article will identify the main sources of greenhouse gas emissions, with a focus on human activities such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and intensive agriculture. It will also explore the consequences of the enhanced greenhouse effect, including global warming, extreme climate change, and impacts on ecosystems and human societies.

Finally, the article will propose solutions to mitigate the negative effects of increasing greenhouse gases. This includes emission reduction strategies, such as transitioning to renewable energy, improving energy efficiency, and promoting sustainable agricultural practices. It will also address the importance of public policies and international agreements to combat climate change.

Understanding the greenhouse effect

Mechanisms of the greenhouse effect

Absorption and emission of infrared radiation

The greenhouse effect is primarily an energy transfer process involving the absorption and emission of infrared radiation by certain gases present in the Earth's atmosphere. When sunlight reaches the Earth's surface, it is absorbed and re-emitted as infrared radiation (heat). Certain gases in the atmosphere, called greenhouse gases (GHGs), have the ability to absorb this infrared radiation and re-emit it in all directions, including towards the Earth's surface. This mechanism traps heat in the atmosphere, which increases the average temperature at the Earth's surface (NASA, 2019).

Role of greenhouse gases (GHGs)

Greenhouse gases play a crucial role in maintaining the Earth’s temperature by absorbing and emitting infrared radiation. The main greenhouse gases include:

• Carbon dioxide (CO2): Produced primarily by the combustion of fossil fuels (oil, coal, natural gas), deforestation, and some industrial activities. CO2 is the largest contributor to the anthropogenic (human-caused) greenhouse effect due to its long atmospheric lifetime and relative abundance (IPCC, 2014).

• Methane (CH4): Emitted during the production and transportation of coal, oil, and natural gas. Methane is also released by agricultural practices, including ruminant farming and organic waste management. Although methane is less abundant than CO2, it is much more effective at trapping heat, about 25 times more powerful over a 100-year period (EPA, 2018).

• Nitrous oxide (N2O): Caused by agricultural and industrial practices, as well as the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass. Nitrous oxide is approximately 300 times more effective than CO2 at trapping heat, although its concentrations in the atmosphere are relatively low (Ravishankara et al., 2009).

• Fluorinated gases: Include compounds such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), which are used in a variety of industrial applications. These gases have very high global warming potentials (GWPs) and can remain in the atmosphere for centuries (UNFCCC, 2015).

These gases absorb infrared radiation emitted from the Earth's surface, thereby increasing the thermal energy in the atmosphere and contributing to global warming. The increasing concentration of these gases, due to human activities, has intensified the natural greenhouse effect, leading to global climate changes and significant environmental impacts (IPCC, 2014).

Main greenhouse gases

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Carbon dioxide is the most abundant greenhouse gas emitted by human activities, mainly from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas. Deforestation and some agricultural practices also contribute to increasing CO2 levels. Carbon dioxide has a long lifetime in the atmosphere, meaning it can affect the climate for centuries. It is responsible for over 60% of the anthropogenic greenhouse effect, making it the main contributor to global warming (IPCC, 2014).

Methane (CH4)

Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, approximately 25 times more effective than CO2 at trapping heat over a 100-year period. The primary sources of methane are agricultural activities (particularly ruminant livestock), fossil fuel production and transportation, and the decomposition of organic waste in landfills. Although its concentration in the atmosphere is lower than that of CO2, its ability to trap heat makes it a significant contributor to climate change (EPA, 2018).

Nitrous oxide (N2O)

Nitrous oxide is a very potent greenhouse gas, approximately 300 times more effective than CO2 in trapping heat over a 100-year period. It is mainly emitted by agricultural practices (use of nitrogen fertilizers), some industrial processes, and the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass. In addition to its impact on global warming, N2O also plays a role in the destruction of the ozone layer (Ravishankara et al., 2009).

Fluorinated gases

Fluorinated gases, such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), are synthetic gases used in a variety of industrial applications, including refrigerants, solvents, and electrical insulation. Although these gases are present in low concentrations in the atmosphere, they have very high global warming potentials (GWPs). For example, SF6 has a GWP approximately 23,500 times higher than CO2 over a 100-year period. These gases can remain in the atmosphere for centuries, exacerbating their impact on global warming (UNFCCC, 2015).

Natural greenhouse cycle

Natural sources and sinks of GHGs

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere come from a variety of natural sources and are absorbed by natural sinks. The following describes the main natural sources and sinks for some of the most important GHGs:

o Carbon dioxide (CO2)

• Natural sources: Respiration of plants and animals, decomposition of organic matter, and volcanic eruptions are natural sources of CO2.
• Natural sinks: Oceans, forests, and soils absorb CO2. Oceans play a major role in dissolving CO2, while forests and other vegetation absorb it through photosynthesis (IPCC, 2014).

o Methane (CH4)

• Natural sources: Wetlands, termites, and underwater methane hydrates are natural sources of CH4.
• Natural sinks: Methane is primarily removed from the atmosphere by chemical reactions with oxygen and hydroxyl radicals, which convert it to carbon dioxide and water (EPA, 2018).

o Nitrous oxide (N2O)

• Natural sources: Crop soils and oceans are natural sources of N2O, primarily due to denitrification by bacteria.
• Natural sinks: N2O is removed by photochemical reactions in the stratosphere, where it also contributes to ozone depletion (Ravishankara et al., 2009).

o Water vapor (H2O)

• Natural sources: Evaporation from oceans, rivers, and lakes, as well as transpiration from plants, are the main natural sources of water vapor.
• Natural sinks: Water vapor is primarily removed from the atmosphere through condensation and precipitation, in the form of rain or snow (IPCC, 2014).

Balance between Emissions and Absorption

The natural greenhouse effect cycle is based on a balance between GHG emissions and their absorption by natural sinks. This balance is crucial to maintain the Earth's temperature at levels suitable for life. However, human activities have disrupted this balance, increasing GHG concentrations in the atmosphere and amplifying the greenhouse effect.

o Imbalance caused by human activities

• Increased emissions: The burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, intensive agriculture and some industrial activities have significantly increased emissions of CO2, CH4 and N2O above natural levels.
• Decrease in natural sinks: Deforestation reduces the capacity of forests to absorb CO2, and climate change can affect the capacity of oceans and soils to absorb GHGs (IPCC, 2014).

o Consequences of this imbalance

The increase in GHG concentrations in the atmosphere leads to global warming, which is manifested by changes in climate patterns, melting glaciers, rising sea levels, and extreme weather events (NASA, 2019).

Causes of the greenhouse effect

Human activities

Combustion of fossil fuels (Oil, Coal, Gas)

The combustion of fossil fuels is the main source of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, the most abundant greenhouse gas resulting from human activities. These fuels are used to generate electricity, heat buildings, and power vehicles. When these fuels are burned, they release CO2 and other pollutants into the atmosphere. In 2018, fossil fuel combustion accounted for about 75% of global CO2 emissions (IEA, 2018).

Deforestation and land use change

Deforestation and land-use change also contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions. Forests act as carbon sinks, absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere. When forests are cut down or burned, the carbon stored in trees is released as CO2. In addition, converting forest land to agricultural or urban land reduces the capacity of ecosystems to absorb CO2. Deforestation accounts for about 10% of global CO2 emissions (FAO, 2020).

Intensive agriculture and livestock

Intensive agriculture and livestock are major sources of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), two potent greenhouse gases. Methane is produced by the digestion of ruminants (such as cows and sheep) and by the decomposition of organic matter in rice paddies and landfills. Nitrous oxide is emitted by the use of nitrogen fertilizers and the management of animal waste. These activities contribute about 10% of global GHG emissions (Smith et al., 2014).

Use of Industrial Chemicals

Industrial chemicals, such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), are used in a variety of applications, including refrigeration, air conditioning, and industrial processes. These fluorinated gases have an extremely high global warming potential (GWP) and can remain in the atmosphere for centuries. Although these gases are present in low concentrations, their impact on global warming is significant. Emissions of fluorinated gases represent about 2% of global GHG emissions, but their radiative impact is much higher due to their high GWP (UNFCCC, 2015).

Impact of infrastructure and urbanisation

Transport emissions

Transport is a major source of greenhouse gases, mainly due to the combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions come from cars, trucks, aircraft and ships. In 2018, the transport sector accounted for approximately 24% of global CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion (IEA, 2018). In addition, methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from vehicles also contribute to global warming. Urban areas, with their high traffic density, are particularly affected by transport-related air pollution.

Construction and operation of buildings

The construction and operation of buildings generate a significant amount of greenhouse gases. Emissions come from several sources:

• Construction: The production of building materials, such as cement and steel, is energy-intensive and emits large amounts of CO2. Cement alone is responsible for 8% of global CO2 emissions (Lehne & Preston, 2018).
• Operation: Buildings consume energy for heating, cooling, lighting, and electrical appliances. This energy is often produced from fossil fuels, resulting in CO2 emissions. In 2018, buildings and the construction sector accounted for 39% of global energy-related CO2 emissions (UN Environment, 2019).

Waste management

Waste management, including incineration, landfills, and wastewater treatment, also contributes to greenhouse gas emissions.

• Waste incineration: This practice emits CO2, nitrogen oxides (NOx), and dioxins. Although incineration reduces the volume of waste, it releases GHGs into the atmosphere.
• Landfills: The decomposition of organic waste in landfills produces methane (CH4), a much more potent greenhouse gas than CO2. Landfills are responsible for 11% of global human-caused methane emissions (EPA, 2018).
• Wastewater treatment: This process emits methane and nitrous oxide, contributing to global warming. Inefficient wastewater treatment in many parts of the world exacerbates these emissions.

Consequences of the enhanced greenhouse effect

Global warming

Increase in global average temperatures

Global warming is mainly manifested by an increase in global average temperatures. Since the end of the 19th century, the average temperature of the Earth's surface has increased by about 1.2°C, with a notable acceleration in recent decades. This increase in temperatures is mainly due to the increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere, resulting from human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation and intensive agriculture (IPCC, 2018). Recent years have been the warmest on record, with temperature records broken on several occasions.

Changes in climate patterns

Global warming is also causing significant changes in climate patterns around the world. These changes are manifested by an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as heat waves, droughts, storms, and intense precipitation. Examples of these changes include:

• Heat waves: Heat waves have become more frequent and intense in many regions, increasing risks to human health, agriculture, and ecosystems. For example, the 2003 heatwave in Europe caused tens of thousands of additional deaths (Robine et al., 2008).
• Droughts: Prolonged and more severe droughts are affecting many regions, reducing water resources, increasing the risk of wildfires, and negatively impacting agriculture. For example, the California drought from 2012 to 2016 had devastating impacts on agriculture and water supplies (Diffenbaugh et al., 2015).
• Storms and hurricanes: Warming oceans are fueling more powerful storms and more destructive hurricanes. For example, Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and Hurricane Harvey in 2017 caused major damage in the United States, exacerbated by higher sea levels and intense precipitation (Emanuel, 2017).

These changes in climate patterns have significant impacts on ecosystems, human societies, and economies. They exacerbate existing vulnerabilities and pose significant challenges for adaptation and resilience.

Impact on ecosystems

Melting glaciers and sea level rise

Global warming has caused an accelerated melting of glaciers and ice caps, contributing to sea level rise. This melting affects mountain glaciers, polar ice caps and sea ice. Sea level rise results from two main processes: thermal expansion of ocean waters (water expands when it warms) and the input of fresh water from melting ice. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), global sea level has risen by about 20 cm during the 20th century and could rise by 26 to 82 cm by 2100, depending on emissions scenarios (IPCC, 2019). This rise threatens coastal ecosystems, causes beach erosion, saline intrusion into freshwater aquifers and increases the risk of flooding in coastal areas.

Biodiversity loss

Climate change contributes to biodiversity loss by altering the environmental conditions necessary for the survival of many species. Species that cannot adapt quickly to changes in temperature, precipitation and seasonality are particularly vulnerable. Habitat loss, forced migrations and the emergence of new diseases affect animal and plant populations. For example, coral bleaching, caused by increasing water temperatures, leads to the death of coral reefs, which are home to a high diversity of marine species (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007).

Disruption of natural habitats

Natural habitats are disrupted by climate change in several ways. Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns are altering terrestrial, aquatic and marine ecosystems. Examples of disturbances include:

• Forests: Global warming can cause changes in forest composition, promote forest fires and allow the invasion of pests and diseases. For example, the mountain pine beetle, a harmful insect, is proliferating in North American forests due to milder winters, causing massive tree destruction (Kurz et al., 2008).
• Wetlands: Wetlands are sensitive to sea level rise and hydrological changes. Salinization and flooding can transform these habitats, affecting the species that depend on them.
• Marine ecosystems: In addition to coral bleaching, ocean acidification, caused by CO2 absorption, affects calcifying marine organisms, such as mollusks and some types of plankton. These changes disrupt marine food chains and dependent ecosystems (Gattuso et al., 2015).

Socio-economic consequences

Effects on agriculture and food security

Climate change seriously affects agriculture and global food security. Temperature variations, changes in precipitation patterns and increased frequency of extreme weather events are compromising agricultural production. Some examples include:

• Heat and water stress: Temperature-sensitive crops such as wheat, maize and rice suffer from reduced yields due to heat stress. In addition, prolonged droughts and erratic rainfall patterns reduce the availability of water for irrigation (FAO, 2016).
• Extreme weather events: Floods, storms and heat waves can destroy crops, reduce yields and disrupt agricultural cycles (IPCC, 2014).
• Food security: Decreased agricultural yields lead to higher food prices, exacerbating food insecurity, particularly in vulnerable regions. Low-income populations are most affected as they spend a larger share of their budget on food (World Bank, 2019).

Impact on human health

Climate change has direct and indirect impacts on human health. The effects are varied and complex:

• Heat-related illnesses: Heat waves lead to an increase in heat-related illnesses and deaths, particularly among vulnerable populations such as the elderly, children and people with chronic diseases (WHO, 2018).
• Infectious diseases: Global warming is changing the geographic distribution of infectious disease vectors, such as mosquitoes, increasing the prevalence of diseases such as dengue fever, malaria and Zika virus (Patz et al., 2005).
• Air quality: Air pollution, exacerbated by high temperatures and greenhouse gas emissions, contributes to the increase in respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. Forest fires, which are increasing in frequency and intensity with climate change, also worsen air quality (Ebi et al., 2008).

Displacement and conflict

The impacts of climate change are causing displacement and exacerbating conflicts, often referred to as “climate refugees”:

• Displacement: Rising sea levels, floods, droughts and other extreme weather events are forcing millions of people to leave their homes. Small islands and coastal regions are particularly vulnerable (IDMC, 2020).
• Conflict over resources: Decreases in natural resources, such as water and arable land, are leading to increased competition between communities, exacerbating tensions and conflicts. Studies show that conflicts over natural resources are more common in regions affected by climate change (Koubi et al., 2012).
• Socio-economic instability: Climate migration can destabilize host regions, leading to additional pressures on infrastructure, public services and labor markets, thereby exacerbating social and economic tensions (Rigaud et al., 2018).

Solutions to mitigate the greenhouse effect

Reducing GHG emissions

Transition to renewable energy

The transition to renewable energy is essential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, hydro and geothermal, produce little or no GHG emissions compared to fossil fuels. Here are some key points:

• Solar energy: Solar photovoltaic energy directly converts sunlight into electricity, while solar thermal energy uses the sun’s heat to generate energy. Solar technologies have immense potential to reduce CO2 emissions by replacing fossil fuel sources (IRENA, 2020).
• Wind energy: Onshore and offshore wind farms harness the power of the wind to generate electricity. Wind energy is one of the fastest growing renewable energy sources and contributes significantly to reducing GHG emissions (GWEC, 2019).
• Hydropower: Hydroelectric dams and river flow systems use the kinetic energy of water to generate electricity. Hydropower is a reliable and flexible renewable energy source, but it must be managed sustainably to avoid negative environmental and social impacts (IPCC, 2011).

Energy efficiency and energy conservation

Energy efficiency and energy conservation are crucial strategies to reduce GHG emissions. Improving energy efficiency means using less energy to provide the same service, while energy conservation involves reducing energy consumption through behavioral changes. Here are some examples:

• Buildings: Buildings account for a significant share of global energy consumption. Improving insulation, using efficient heating and cooling systems, and integrating energy management technologies can significantly reduce buildings’ energy consumption (UN Environment, 2019).
• Industry: Industries can reduce their energy consumption by optimizing production processes, adopting energy-efficient technologies, and recycling materials. For example, using high-efficiency furnaces and cogeneration systems can reduce industrial emissions (IEA, 2018).
• Transportation: Adopting electric vehicles, improving the energy efficiency of internal combustion engines, and promoting public transportation and carpooling can reduce fuel consumption and transportation-related GHG emissions (IEA, 2019).

Reducing industrial and agricultural emissions

The industrial and agricultural sectors are responsible for a significant share of GHG emissions. Some approaches to reduce these emissions include:

o Industry

• Carbon capture and storage (CCS): CCS technologies capture CO2 emitted by power plants and industrial facilities and then store it in deep geological formations to prevent its release into the atmosphere (IEA, 2016).
• Clean technologies: Adopting cleaner and less polluting production technologies, such as low-emission manufacturing processes, can reduce industrial emissions (IPCC, 2014).

o Agriculture

• Fertilizer management: Efficient use of fertilizers can reduce N2O emissions. Management practices include precise fertilizer application, use of cover crops, and crop rotation (FAO, 2019).
• Animal manure management: Animal manure management systems, such as anaerobic digesters, can reduce methane emissions and produce biogas, a renewable energy source (Smith et al., 2014).

Carbon capture and storage

a) Carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) technologies

Carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) are technologies designed to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from industrial and energy sources. The CCS process involves three main steps:

• CO2 capture: CO2 is captured from the flue gases produced by power plants and industrial facilities. There are three main capture methods: pre-combustion, post-combustion and chemical looping combustion. Post-combustion is the most commonly used method, where CO2 is separated from other gases after the combustion of fossil fuels (IEA, 2016).
• CO2 transport: Once captured, CO2 is compressed and transported via pipelines or ships to storage sites. Pipeline transport is the most commonly used method due to its efficiency and safety (IPCC, 2005).
• CO2 storage: CO2 is injected into deep geological formations, such as saline aquifers, depleted oil and gas reservoirs, or unexploited coal seams. These geological formations are capable of trapping CO2 safely and permanently. CCS projects have been implemented in various countries, demonstrating the feasibility and effectiveness of this technology in reducing CO2 emissions (Global CCS Institute, 2020).

b) Role of forests and oceans as carbon sinks

Forests and oceans play a crucial role as natural carbon sinks, absorbing and storing large amounts of CO2 from the atmosphere. Here is how these ecosystems contribute to carbon sequestration:

o Forests

• Carbon sequestration: Trees and plants absorb CO2 from the atmosphere during photosynthesis and store it as biomass (wood, leaves, roots). Forests are therefore important carbon reservoirs, capable of storing billions of tons of CO2. Tropical, temperate and boreal forests all contribute to this sequestration, although tropical forests are the most efficient due to their rapid growth (Pan et al., 2011).
• Forest management: Sustainable management of forests, including reforestation and afforestation, is essential to maximize their carbon sequestration capacity. Practices such as fire protection, reducing deforestation and planting trees can enhance carbon sequestration in forests (FAO, 2019).

o Oceans

• CO2 absorption: The oceans absorb about a quarter of global CO2 emissions each year. This CO2 is dissolved in seawater and used by marine organisms for photosynthesis. Phytoplankton, tiny marine plants, play a crucial role in this process (Gattuso et al., 2015).
• Biological pump: CO2 absorbed by marine organisms is partially exported to the deep ocean when they die and sink, storing carbon for centuries or even millennia. This process, known as the biological pump, is an important mechanism for carbon sequestration in the oceans (Sabine et al., 2004).

International policies and agreements

a) Paris agreements and other global initiatives

Paris Agreement

The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015 at the Conference of the Parties (COP21) in Paris, is a landmark agreement that aims to limit global warming to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, with efforts to limit it to 1.5°C. Key commitments include:

• Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Each country must set its own emission reduction targets and revise them every five years to make them more ambitious.
• Climate finance: Developed countries have committed to mobilizing $100 billion per year by 2020 to help developing countries mitigate and adapt to the effects of climate change.
• Transparency and monitoring: The agreement establishes a transparency framework to track each country’s progress and ensure compliance with commitments (UNFCCC, 2015).

Other global initiatives

• Kyoto Protocol: Preceding the Paris Agreement, the Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997, imposed emission reduction targets on industrialized countries. Although less ambitious and inclusive than the Paris Agreement, it laid the foundation for international efforts to combat climate change (UNFCCC, 1997).
• Glasgow Climate Pact: Adopted in 2021 at COP26, this pact calls for an acceleration of climate actions and financing, including the phasing out of coal and the reduction of fossil fuel subsidies (UNFCCC, 2021).

National and local emission reduction policies

Countries and local governments are implementing various policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and meet their climate goals. Here are some examples:

• Emission regulations: Many countries have adopted strict standards for emissions from vehicles, power plants, and industries. For example, the European Union has implemented emission standards for cars and trucks, aimed at reducing CO2 emissions from new vehicles (European Commission, 2019).
• Energy transition plans: National energy transition plans aim to increase the share of renewable energy in the energy mix and reduce reliance on fossil fuels. For example, Germany has launched the Energiewende, an ambitious plan to transform its energy system towards renewable energy (Agora Energiewende, 2019).
• Local initiatives: Cities play a crucial role in combating climate change by adopting policies to reduce emissions and promoting sustainable lifestyles. For example, Copenhagen aims to become carbon neutral by 2025 through measures such as energy-efficient buildings, green public transport and cycling infrastructure (C40 Cities, 2020).

Economic incentives and environmental regulations

Economic incentives and environmental regulations are effective tools to encourage emissions reductions and promote sustainable practices:

• Carbon markets: Cap-and-trade systems set a cap on total emissions and allow companies to buy and sell carbon credits. The EU has set up the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS), which is the largest carbon market in the world (European Commission, 2019).
• Subsidies and tax incentives: Governments offer subsidies and tax credits to encourage the adoption of renewable energy, electric vehicles, and energy efficiency technologies. For example, the United States has tax credits for installing solar panels and purchasing electric vehicles (DOE, 2020).
• Environmental regulations: Laws and regulations impose strict limits on pollutant emissions and set standards for air, water, and soil quality. These regulations are crucial to protecting the environment and public health. For example, the Clean Air Act in the United States regulates emissions of harmful air pollutants (EPA, 2018).

Conclusion

Action

Need for urgent and concerted action

Climate change is a global threat that requires immediate and coordinated action. The scientific evidence is clear: greenhouse gas emissions must be drastically reduced to avoid the most severe impacts of global warming. Urgent action is essential to limit warming to 1.5°C or 2°C, in line with the goals of the Paris Agreement. Time is running out, and each year of delay increases the risks of irreversible damage to ecosystems, economies and human societies (IPCC, 2018).

Role of individuals, businesses and governments

Addressing climate change requires the active participation of all actors in society. Every individual, business and government has a crucial role to play:

• Individuals: Personal choices about energy consumption, transportation, food and waste management can have a significant impact on greenhouse gas emissions. Adopting more sustainable lifestyles, such as using public transportation, reducing meat consumption and turning off electrical appliances when not in use, helps reduce individual carbon footprints (Gifford, 2011).
• Businesses: Businesses can integrate sustainable practices into their operations, invest in clean technologies and adopt ambitious emission reduction targets. By adopting circular business models and investing in green innovation, businesses can not only reduce their environmental impact but also benefit from economic and competitive advantages (Porter & Kramer, 2011).
• Governments: Governments must put in place ambitious policies and regulations to encourage the transition to a low-carbon economy. This includes incentives for renewable energy, strict standards for industrial emissions, and investments in green infrastructure. Governments must also collaborate internationally to achieve global climate goals (Stern, 2006).

Future prospects

Technological innovations and sustainable solutions

Technological innovation is essential to develop sustainable solutions that can reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Advances in renewable energy, energy storage, energy efficiency and carbon capture and storage (CCS) offer promising prospects for mitigating climate change. For example, improving solar and wind technologies, developing high-capacity batteries and optimising industrial processes are key areas of innovation (IRENA, 2020).

Importance of education and awareness

Education and awareness play a crucial role in combating climate change. Informing the public about the causes and consequences of global warming, as well as possible actions to address it, is essential to mobilise collective action. Educational programmes, awareness campaigns and the integration of environmental education into school curricula can help to create a generation that is aware and committed to protecting the environment (UNESCO, 2017).

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